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Created it, 06/09/09
Update it, 06/09/11
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PREFACE
The technique digital (or digital, term which we will use preferably because it from now on is standardized) is that of the circuits micro-electronics, calling upon the binary language. Its evolution is closely related to scientific research leading to new technologies.
One finds elements of digital technique in the very different sectors such as :
rail networks
telephone exchanges
aeronautics.
The coordination of railway shuntings and automatic telephony were the first applications of the Boolean algebra, bases of all the operations carried out in digital technique.
Thanks to this algebra, the organization of these systems is such as the latter make elementary decisions which are connected with that of the human brain.
With the automatism, the logical devices, which in the beginning, were all mechanical, then electromechanical, were replaced by electronic systems and numerical technology improved: smaller, more powerful circuits becoming thus able to carry out increasingly complex operations.
These circuits were called “digital” English term “digit” which means figure. We will indicate them under the term : digital circuits.
In parallel, the mechanical or electromechanical systems also improved, without however competing with electronics in the field of speed and the miniaturization. They keep still certain applications. In industrial circle, one frequently uses pneumatic systems (using the air) which marry sometimes with electronic systems.
Fluidic, technical in which one uses the circulation of a fluid (the liquid or gas) developed with the appearance of the “fluidistor”. These circuits do not consist of electric drivers, but of tubes and internal cavities to the adapted forms, so as to carry out operations similar to those of the electromechanical or electronic switches.
The fluidistor uses the principle of the deviations of jet, compound to the wall-attachment effect (Coanda effect used in certain aeronautical engines).
Some prototypes of calculators were even elaborate in this technology, but their slowness, their unreliability and their dimensions were a large handicap with their development, and quickly made them forget.
Today, when one speaks about "digital technique”, one thinks generally only of the electronic applications and the multitude of microcircuits implemented.
All the technological developments of this technique are directed towards a more close integration of the circuits, thus allowing a broader diffusion.
In order to better include/understand the evolution of these systems, it is not thus out of matter to make a historical short cut of the evolution of electronics since the origins of electricity until our days since this one is largely used. The developments in the digital technology applied to data processing will be then presented. Examples, on the generalization of this technique and of the use of the microprocessor, will be then given.
1. - ELECTRICITY
The discovery of the electric phenomena
700 years before J.C., Thalès notes that the yellow amber with the property to attract light bodies by frictions on the skin of a cat.
1.1. - ELECTROSTATICS
In XVème century, English Gilbert finds the properties of the yellow amber in the insulating substances : resin and glass.
The laws of electrostatics are established by Coulomb then Faraday in 1785.
1.2. - THE ELECTROKINETIC
In 1790, Galvani carries out the first experiments which lead Volta to discover, in 1800, the first battery.
The fundamental laws of electrokinetic are established by Ohm in 1827 and Pouillet in 1837.
In 1833, Faraday establishes the laws of electrolysis.
In 1841, Joule establishes the laws of the heating effect.
In 1848, Kohlrausch defines the resistivity.
1.3. - ELECTROMAGNETISM
In 1880, Oersted establishes the first laws binding the electromagnetic and electric phenomena.
Laplace and Ampère dictate the laws governing the reciprocal action of the magnetic fields on the currents.
Faraday discovers induction in 1831, Lentz establishes the laws in 1834 of them. In 1832, Henry studies the self-induction.
1.4. - INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
The first engine is due to Barlow in 1828, the first generator in Ampère in 1832. In 1856, Siemens invents the dynamo, but Gram produced for the first time of the D.C. current in 1869 with its collector ring.
In 1878, Edison invents the incandescent lamp.
In 1884, Gaulard invents the transformer.
Electronics, girl of electricity is the science which uses and controls the displacement of the electrons in the semiconductors, the vacuum and gases.
2. - ELECTRONICS
This one sees quickly evolving/moving the components that it employs.
Its evolution was faster still than that of electricity, and this, mainly since the end of the second world war.
This is why will make we the recall by means of a table of it :
1817 Berthesius identifies Selenium
1887 Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect
1888 Hertz discovers the electromagnetic waves
1891 William Shockley, of the laboratories Beautiful, baptizes the smallest corpuscle of negative charge: electron
1897 John Joseph Thomson discovers the electron in experiments
1901 Richardson discovers the thermionic effect
1904 Flemming invents the diode
1907 Lee de Forest invents the triode
1915 Schottky invents the tetrode
Bernard Tellegen invents the pentode
1923 Lossev carries out an oscillatory circuit with the crystal of zincite
1928 Lilienfeld studies the action of an electrostatic field on an electrical current
1930 Weber controls the emission of electrons in a semiconductor
1930 The Tetzner French invents the first field-effect transistor: the technetron
1930 Holst, Van Geel, Pohl, Hilsch, Voigt, Koch study the theory of the transistor with point
1948 - 1950 Teal and Pfann succeed at the Bell laboratory, to produce Silicon, whose purity reaches 99,99999 %
1948 Bardeen, Brattain, Shockley (Beautiful System Laboratories) invent the junction transistor
1950 Teal manufactures the first transistor junctions put on sale in the trade
1957 - 1958 Mass production of the field-effect transistor by Walmark at R.C.A., Tetzner at C.G.E.
1958 First integrated circuit manufactured by Kilby at Texas Instruments
1962 First field-effect transistor to silicon substrate
1971 Texas Instruments manufactures the first calculator integrated into only one chip or chip
1971 INTEL manufactures the first microprocessor : 4004
1980 Technologies L.S.I (close integration) allow the integration from 2 000 to 8 000 transistors per chip
1990 Technologies V.L.S.I (very close integration) allow the integration of 1 billion transistors per chip. (The Japanese already invested 100 million dollars in this technique).
3. - NUMERICAL MACHINES AND DATA PROCESSING
Two thousand years before J.C., the Chinese knew already the binary notation.
The counting frame seems to be the oldest calculating machine.
3. 1. - MECHANICAL MACHINES
The first machine being used to calculate is that of Schikurt in 1623.
The first genuine computer is allotted to the Pascal French who built it in 1642. It carried out only the additions and the subtractions and was of course mechanical.
In 1673, the German philosopher Leibniz designs a computer allowing to also carry out the multiplications and divisions. It will however be necessary to await the end of the XIXème century so that computers are manufactured on the model of that of Leibniz; they will be used to the Second World War.
However it is into 1883 that the Babbage English works out the project of a computer of general use, of which the structure resembles narrowly that of a modern computer. Too much advances some on the technological possibilities of its time, this machine could not concretize the dreams of its author.
One can also quote like example of achievements using the concept of memorizing and program: barrel organ which diffuse music preregistered on paper, and the Jacquard loom which carries out weaving according to a reason memorized in a punched paper tape.
3. 2. - MACHINES A RELAY - DATA PROCESSING AND SCIENTIFIC COMPUTATION
The logical reasoning was studied by the Aristote Greek 400 years before J.C., then by Leibniz at the XVIIème century. To the XVIIIème century, Switzerland Euler gave a graphic illustration of this reasoning.
But it was the philosopher and Irish mathematician George Boole (1815 - 1864), which, in 1854 posed the bases of the modern logic. He invented a mathematical system defining the rules of the numerical calculation used in the computers (like all the logical systems).
At the XIXème century, De Morgan establishes the theorem which bears its name and, constitutes the base of all simplifications of the logic diagrams. The Boolean algebra is not whereas a mathematical curiosity.
In 1890, the American H. Hollerith develops new machines for the census of the population of the United States. Used Computer Tabulating Recording Company become in 1924 I.B.M. (International Mecanical Business), he invents the punch card which will be at the base of “data processing” during first half of the XXème century.
The analog computers are born in experimental form for the scientific computation about 1925 (Busch), while the binary system suggested initially by Bacon in XVIème century and taken again by Gray with the U.S.A, allows the creation of mechanical calculators (1925 - 1930).
In 1936, the Nakasima Japanese and Hanzawa, then the Shannon American in 1938, discover that the Boolean algebra can render great services; for the rational study of the gates in automatic telephony.
To the Second World War, the computers remain mechanical and their development remains related to the countable and scientific applications.
One can quote :
in 1938 the binary calculator Z1 de Conrad Zuse in Germany.
in 1944 the calculator MARK 1 by Howard $aiken at the university of Harward (realization
I.B.M.).
But the war stimulates research in the field of the computers.
Calculations of the trajectories of the projectiles become increasingly complicated, as their speed increases. The air war requires a great speed to carry out these calculations; either to direct the artillery shootings, or to release the bombs starting from planes.
The efforts relate to all that is able to improve the computing speed.
Most powerful of the relay computers, model III of Beautiful, uses nine thousand relays. It weighs 10 tons, carries out a multiplication into 1 second and a division in 2,2 seconds.
One turns then to electronics.
3. 3. - FIRST GENERATION: USE OF VACUUM TUBE (1950)
In 1947, the computer of first generation ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Intégrator and Computer) of Manchly and Eckert are truly the first electronic computer. It is much faster than model III, carrying out a multiplication in 2,8 thousandths of second approximately. It uses 18 000 electron tubes, occupies 135 m², weighs 30 tons and consumes 150 kW.
The ENIAC cost a half million dollars, and the price of the following computers will be still higher.
Belong to “this generation” : the EDVAC (University of Princeton) ; GAMMA 3 of Bull, 603-SSEC - 702 - 650 - 704 - 709 of the most famous I.B.M. and of them the UNIVAC 1 of Remington Rand.
At the end of the second world war, the electronic computers being covered by the military secrecy cannot be marketed freely and upset the industrial world.
Many computers (mainly in England and in the U.S.A.) are developed. They use electron tubes and relays.
Other researchers will improve the computer quickly, thanks to work of Von Neumann (university of Princeton).
About 1950, the computers evolve/move and one starts to compare their mechanism with that of the human brain.
The methods of coding and decoding suggested make emerge one of most important of them : process MIC (Pulse modulation Coded) or PCM (Code Modulation Pulsates), deposited by Alan Reeves in 1938.
3. 4. - SECOND GENERATION: USE OF THE TRANSISTOR (1960)
In 1950, the manufacture of the transistor is made possible thanks to new processes of purification of silicon.
The Sixties are those of the space adventure as well as Ballistic missile. At that time, the computing speed of the systems being sufficient, the enemy number one is the weight and dimensions of the systems.
One generalizes the use of transistorized circuits.
Among the apparatuses of this generation, one can quote :
gamma 60 (of Bull)
the PDP1 (of DIGITAL Equipment)
the 1401 - 1620 - 7090 (of I.B.M.)
the CAB 500 (of the S.E.A.)
3. 5. - THE THIRD GENERATION : USE OF THE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
In order to still gain weight, one seeks to put several elements in the same case. Thus is born the first integrated circuit which contain four transistors and two resistances on a single pastille from semiconductor.
In 1964, I.B.M. launches the first using computer of the integrated circuits.
The computers of the 3rd generation become increasingly fast and compact.
3. 6. - FOURTH GENERATION (1980)
Thanks to the microcircuits, the computer becomes mini computer, then, with the use of integrated circuits still comprising a higher number of transistors, micro computer (more than 10 000 transistors in the same case).
A micro modern computer has under the volume of a television set the same power (approximately 110 to 150 Watts).
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